Month: November 2013

Source: irishtimes.com

That’s Maths: A mechanical device first discovered underwater in 1900 shows how advanced the Greeks were

A reconstruction of Antikythera Mechanism in Athens. Photograph: Louisa Gouliamaki/AFP/Getty Images

Two storms, separated by 2,000 years, resulted in the loss and recovery of one of the most amazing mechanical devices made in the ancient world.

The first storm, around 65 BC, wrecked a Roman vessel taking home loot from Asia Minor. The ship went down near the island of Antikythera, between the Greek mainland and Crete. The second storm, in 1900, forced some sponge divers to shelter near the island, where they discovered the wreck.

This led to the first major underwater archeological expedition. In addition to sculptures and other art works, an amorphous lump of bronze, later described as the Antikythera Mechanism, was found.

On examination, the bronze lump turned out to be a complex assemblage of gears, a mechanical device previously unknown in Greek civilisation. Inscribed signs of the Zodiac suggested that it was probably for astronomical rather than navigation purposes.

Several techniques were used to establish that the AM is about 2,000 years old. Carbon dating of the ship’s timber put it at about 200 BC, but the wreck could have been many decades later.

The style of amphora jars found on board implied a date between 86 BC and 60 BC. Coins found in the wreckage allowed this to be pinned down to about 65 BC.

The inscriptions on the mechanism link it to Corinth and thence to its colony at Syracuse, where Archimedes flourished. This gives an intriguing possibility that the AM was in a mechanical tradition inspired by Archimedes.

The mechanism was driven by a handle that turned a linked system of more than 30 gear wheels. Using modern imaging techniques, it is possible to count the teeth on the wheels, see which cog meshes with which and what are the gear ratios. These ratios enable us to figure out what the mechanism was computing.

The gears were coupled to pointers on the front and back of the mechanism, showing the positions of the sun, moon and planets as they moved through the zodiac. An extendable arm with a pin followed a spiral groove, like a record player stylus. A small sphere, half white and half black, indicated the phase of the moon.

Even more impressive was the prediction of solar and lunar eclipses. It was known to the Babylonians that if a lunar eclipse is observed, a similar event occurs 223 full moons later. This period of about 19 years is known as the Saros cycle. It required complex mathematical reasoning and technology to implement the cycle in the mechanism.

The mechanism could provide accurate predictions of eclipses several decades ahead. Derek de Solla Price, who analysed it in the 1960s, said the discovery was like finding an internal combustion engine in Tutankhamen’s tomb.

The Antikythera mechanism has revolutionised our thinking about the scientific legacy of the Greeks. It is like modern clockwork, but clocks were invented in medieval Europe. It shows that the Greeks came close to our technology. Had the Romans not taken charge, we might today be far in advance of our current level of technology.

All the gear ratios are now understood; there was even a dial to indicate which of the pan-Hellenic games would take place each year, with the Olympics occurring every fourth year. Just one small cog remains a mystery. Research is continuing, and more remains to be discovered about this amazing high-tech device.

Source: http://hellenicleaders.com/HagiaSophia

A few days ago, deputy prime minister of Turkey Bulent Arinc stood next to Hagia Sophia and made a shocking declaration: he declared to his audience that “[w]e currently stand next to the Hagia Sophia Mosque […] we are looking at a sad Hagia Sophia, but hopefully we will see it smiling again soon.”

The Greek government has released a response:

“The repeated statements from Turkish officials regarding the conversion of Byzantine Christian churches into mosques are an insult to the religious sensibilities of millions of Christians and are actions that are anachronistic and incomprehensible from a state that declares it wants to participate as a full member in the European Union, a fundamental principle of which is respect for religious freedom. Byzantine Christian churches are an intrinsic element of world cultural and religious heritage, and they should receive the necessary respect and protection.”

Of course, the Turkish government couldn’t care less about the reaction of Greeks or Christians. The movement within Turkey to turn Hagia Sophia into a mosque has gained steam as of late, and earlier this year, a petition was submitted to a parliamentary commission to accomplish the conversion.

Less than two weeks ago, a bill was introduced in Turkish parliament to convert Hagia Sophia into a mosque, laughably claiming that its conversion into the museum it is today was somehow “illegal.” This is what the bill’s sponsor had to say about the matter:

“This bill has been prepared aiming to open the Hagia Sophia – which is the symbol of the Conquest of Istanbul and which has been resounding with the sounds of the call to prayer for 481 years – as a mosque for prayers.”

And there you have it. For millions around the world, Hagia Sophia symbolizes the history of Christianity, the glorious grandeur of Byzantine architecture, or the stunning ability of man to sculpt faith into a creation that stirs the hearts of onlookers to this very day.

For the bill’s sponsor and many others in Turkey? Hagia Sophia is simply “the symbol of the Conquest of Istanbul,” a passive representation of the height of Ottoman power. For them, Hagia Sophia has no intrinsic value but is instead a means to an end. Its conversation into a mosque would be yet another “conquest,” a victorious notch in the proverbial belt of an re-ascendent Ottomanism.

The “Blue Mosque” – located just a over a kilometer away from Hagia Sophia.

After all, it’s not like the city needs another mosque. Just one kilometer away from Hagia Sophia is Turkey’s famous Blue Mosque, completed in 1616 and still used to this day as a mosque for prayers.

Still, the relentless pursuit of converting historical Christian sites to mosques marches on in Turkey. One other Hagia Sophia, a smaller church-turned-museum in Trabzon, Turkey, has already been turned into a mosque this year. A court ruled that its conversion into a museum was “illegal.” It’s a case that sets a dangerous precedent.

We need your help to stand up for Hagia Sophia. Add your voice to the international petition in opposition to converting Hagia Sophia into a mosque:

http://hellenicleaders.com/HagiaSophia

Source: dailynewsegypt.com

The Greek Campus has functioned as home for the AUC library back when the main AUC campus was Downtown
(Photo from The American University in Cairo)

A part of The American University in Cairo (AUC) for almost five decades, the Greek Campus will now be home to Egypt’s first technology park in downtown Cairo. AUC has signed a 10-year lease agreement with Tahrir Alley Technology Park (TATP), a Cairo-based company that intends to keep the Greek Campus name and operate it, with AUC retaining full ownership. A reception was held on the Greek Campus on Thursday, 14 November to officially announce the university’s plans. “We hope this new initiative will bring vitality to what has been, and will remain, our neighborhood and the home of our historic Tahrir Square campus,” said AUC President Lisa Anderson. “It is especially rewarding to see that the campus will be used to serve the purpose of advancing technology and entrepreneurship.” Ahmed El-Alfi, founder of TATP, looks forward to creating a hub where entrepreneurship and creativity can thrive in the heart of Cairo: “The Greek Campus will not only act as technologically advanced office spaces but also as a center for creative minds, startups, and technology multinationals to work, meet, and collaborate.”

The location dates back to even earlier times since it was established in 1964
(Photo from The American University in Cairo)

Purchased by the university from the Greek community in 1964, the Greek Campus –– which has been closed since after AUC relocated to New Cairo in 2008 –– was the hub of social activity for students, located one block away from the Main Campus. It housed the library, Social Science Building, Social Research Centre, Jameel Center and School of Continuing Education (previously known as the Centre for Adult and Continuing Education and Division of Public Service). When it was first purchased, the Greek Campus included a theatre, print shop, two tennis courts and a cafeteria.

The Greek Campus was purchased during the presidency of Thomas Bartlett, who was in his mid-30s at the time, who worked relentlessly on expanding AUC’s facilities for it to grow and become a first-class institution contributing to Egypt’s development. “In the late 1940s, it was apparent that more space was needed to accommodate the expansion in the student body and programmes,” said Bartlett in “The Day We Bought the Greek Campus.”

To do that, Hill House and the Science Building were constructed in 1953 and 1966, respectively. In 1964, money that was initially going to be used for the construction of a 10-storey building on the Main Campus was used instead for the purchase of the Greek Campus, the largest addition to the university during Bartlett’s tenure. “Suddenly, the opportunity came to buy two Greek schools, where the Greek Campus is now located, [but] we first needed approval to use the money given to us for construction on the Main Campus for purchasing the Greek schools instead,” said Bartlett, who served as interim AUC president from 2002 to 2003 and is currently an AUC trustee. “The Board of Trustees approved the proposed shift on 19 July 1964.”

It is located in the middle of Downtown Cairo, a walking distance from AUC’s main gate on Mohamed Mahmoud’s street
(Photo from The American University in Cairo)

Once permission was secured, Bartlett faced another challenge. The Greek community wanted hard currency, and that is something “AUC did not have and could not legally have paid,” he said. In addition, there were doubts as to whether AUC was eligible to buy the Greek Campus under the laws that were in effect at the time. “Fortunately,” said Bartlett, “Mr. Pierakos [Greek community leader] eventually accepted Egyptian pounds, and the Egyptian authorities did not object to the sale.”

“On the day of the sale,” Bartlett said, “Mr. Fayek Wissa, the accountant, and I had to carry several satchels containing the purchase money, since a cheque was not legal tender for the transaction. About EGP 409,500 in ten pound denominations had to be counted and transferred in the presence of the official in the registration office. That was done, and the final papers for the purchase were signed on 15 March 1965.”

One of the most distinct features of the Greek Campus was the library. The library was initially located in Hill House, but with the rapid increase in the university’s collection of books and periodicals and the ever-expanding needs of students and faculty members, the building became inadequate. In 1971, President Christopher Thoron consulted with experts in the field, and the Board of Trustees asked American architect Hugh Jacobson to draft plans for a new library that would be located in the Greek Campus. In May 1974 AUC broke ground on the project and construction progressed until 1976, when a fire broke out, destroying columns, beams and cement work on the first floor. Work on the library was halted for nearly two years, and in 1982, under the tenure of President Richard F. Pederson, the Greek Campus library was complete. Jacobson designed the library building with its exterior facing the street, as well as a plaza and platform steps extending from the building to the garden areas at the centre of the Greek Campus. As Thomas A. Lamont noted in The American University in Cairo: 1987 – 1995: “The dramatic contours of AUC’s library have given the Greek Campus its own architectural flavour.”

The campus is known for its shaded areas, which were often frequented by students resting in between classes
(Photo from The American University in Cairo)

The most attractive building is that of the library designed by architect Hugh Jacobson
(Photo from The American University in Cairo)

Another major building on the Greek Campus was the Abdul Latif Jameel Centre for Middle East Management Studies, for which construction began in 1987 and was completed in 1989. The building accommodated the steady growth of the student body in the late 1980s and early 1990s, as well as the increasing demand on management, engineering sciences and other professional programmes. The Social Science Building on the Greek Campus, with its long, tall staircase, housed the departments and offices of the School of Humanities and Social Sciences. In addition, the Division of Public Service, which is now the School of Continuing Education, offered, for many years, adult education courses at the Greek Campus to large numbers of Egyptians, affirming the university’s mission of service to the community.

An integral part of student life, the Greek Campus has been witness to 50 years of AUC traditions, activities and memories; from performances in Wallace Theatre, University Senate meetings in the Blue Room, student club activities, including group weddings for orphans, late-night stays in the Caravan newsroom and crowds of students at the Copy Centre to International Day festivities: fun for children at the day care centre and gatherings in the Model United Nations office located in the Social Science Building.

To bid farewell to the Greek Campus before the university’s move to New Cairo, a gathering was held there in May 2008, bringing together members of the AUC community. The event included folklore and music performances, as well as a documentary featuring faculty, students and alumni reflecting on precious memories and favourite spots on campus.

Turkey has released a condolence message for former Greek Cypriot leader Glafcos Clerides, voicing sadness over his loss and underlining his service for the Greek Cypriot people.

“It is particularly saddening that Clerides lost his life without being able to see that a permanent and comprehensive resolution that would rebuild partnership on the island had been reached,” the Turkish Foreign Ministry said in a written statement released on Nov. 17.

The statement also recalled that Clerides’ lobbying efforts for a U.N. reunification plan for Cyprus had ultimately failed after the Greek Cypriot side rejected it in a public referendum in April 2004. The plan, named after then-U.N. Secretary-General Kofi Annan, was accepted by the Turkish Cypriot community.

Born in Nicosia on April 24, 1919, Clerides, 94, founded the ruling right-wing DISY party in 1976 and served as Greek Cyprus’ president from 1993 to 2003 in back-to-back terms.

The Foreign Ministry statement particularly underlined that, starting from 1968, Clerides had played an important role in the negotiation process aimed at resolving the Cyprus issue, along with the founder president of the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus (KKTC), the late Rauf Denktaş.